Coversheet - an Overview of Research in Radiation Biology and Protetive Measures in the Manhattan Project During the War Years 1942-1946 (Draft)

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AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH IN RADIATION BIOLOGY ATJD PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE MANHATTAN PROJECT DURING THE b7P.R YEARS. 1942-1946 Project of World War 11 was instituted f o r the express purpose of developing nuclear energy. This intensive undertaking was of an unprecedented nature and scope and its ultimate success contingent on advances in many areas. Achievements of primary importance in the physical sciences were accompanied by investigations in the biological and medical science sector. Programs in radiation biology and medicine constituted a significant portion of the Project and received serious attention from its inception. The record which I am hoping to unfold in tracing the developments of the program in radiation biology and radiation protection of the Manhattan Project has been outlined in prior publications, (Technical Nuclear Series). Although the record is fairly complete in the series and in other publications, its size and detail preclude$ an integrated overview. The objective that can best be pursued is to present a more cohesive view of the general biological research program, the manner in which it was developed,

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and how it sur,ported the major objectives of the Manhattan Project.That objective was of course to develop nuclear energy and primarily nuclear fission for military purposes.The corollary question of associated radiation hazard was conside red a paramount one from the beginning. My position as Deputy Chief and Executive9ff ice r of the section on Biology and Medicine of the Manhattan District Corps of Engineers should have given mean exceptional opportunity to provide such an overview. However, the program and the act iv i tikes of the Manhattan Project were rigor - ou sly corn partment aliz ed for reasons of secrecy. Even at higher echelons,in divi du az s charged with designated responsibilities and possessing the proper authority were frequently unaware of special projects and various activities.This obviously augmented the security of the Project but of course interfered with administrative control and direction. In retrospect,one could conclude that the inter - fe renee with appropriate administrative measures was in general not severe. But at the time the rig - oro us compartment al structure often appeared unneces sari ly restrictive. In general an att&!pt will be made to present the

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material in chronological order. And gt i s hoped that the development of the various programs will be best exposed in this fashion. On the whole,the research programs and the protective measures were dictated by the major technical activities of developing nuclear fission.The activities in biology and medicine of the Manhattan Project probably however did not begin simultaneously with the development of the technical institute data very early date. atory began operations in January of 1942 and its nid us was the Xe tall ur g ical Laboratory at the Univers it y of Chicago under the general direction of Dr.Arthur Compton. The program to develop fission bombs grew out of work that had already been done on chain reactions in1940and1942,at Columbia University and at Princeton and at the University i#&C ali for nia where the chemistry of transuranic elements was already(Fc ur ring J A concerted de vel - opment in biology and medicine and radiation biology did not begin until about the middle of1342,al - though it was already apparent that careful attention would be necessary to provide protective measures and establish safeguards for radiation hazards. Before the Project began to take form, Dr.Stone of

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the University of California had been involved in some planning features at the University of Chicago. He had been regularly in contact with the Metallurgical Project before he was actually and assumed residence in Chicago. The project at' the University of Chicago which was centered around the Metallurgical Laboratory was later identified as the Plutonium Project and its history is recorded in a number of the Technical Issues. Prior to the formation of the Manhattan District Corps of Engineers, the activities had been pursued under the Office of tract with the OSRD, activities in radiation biology had already commenced at the University of Chicago and the University of California. attached to it In the ensuing sections,the gradual development of the organizational structure and the changing character of the personnel who were involved in the various pursuits will be pointed out. The production and isolation of Plutonium would eventually involve three primary sites, the UniverP-c.7.T of Chicago, the Clinton Laboratories at Oak Ridge, and Hanford, Washingon. In each of these areas, a biomedical radiation program was instituted and pursued. At the University of Chicago, research

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continued for a considerable period of time. A major portion of the effort was transferred to the Clinton Laboratory at Oak Ridge and eventually -when the Hanford pile became operative- liaison was maintained between these three sites and the production plant at Hanford. Personnel were transferred from both Chicago and Clinton to the Hanford plant to carry out its mission in radiation protection. The liaison between the University of California and the University of Chicago is better understood in view of the fact that activities in transuranic elements were already in progress at the University of California under the general direction of Ernest Lawrence. The metabolism of fission products in mammals was being investigated by Joseph Hamilton at the Univer(-j?,Qiy/of California in view of its ability to produce an abundance of these elements with the cyclotron. It was this activity which was incorporated into the operation of the Metallurgical Laboratory. Regular reports were submitted after the formation of the program to the Division of Biomedical Radiation Research of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago under the administration of Dr. Robert Special segments of the various activities appear to

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be chronicled well in many of the introductory statementsof the Nuclear Series Volumes and the research itself has been reviewed in a fairly extensive fashion. However these do not provide the appropriate overview and d o m t in any way reflect the interrelationship and interdigitation that occurred between the various research organizations. To be sure, as noted previously,there was severe compartmentalization but on the whole there was general awareness at some level of the administrative structure of the Manhattan District of the various programs that were being pursued throughout t.he Manhattan Project. When the Division of Biology and Medicine of the Manhattan District Corps of Engineers was finally formed, there was continuous examination in the way in which the various research programs might interact and how the biological research endeavors might be kept under constant s u r - veillance. This interaction was never complete or intensive due to the compartmentalization but there' was another cogent reason which was carefully observed. It was considered necessary to avoid compronising the independence of these various and separate research programs. It was deemed that rigid and efficient integration should be avoided simply to maintain the vigor and commitment of the

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various research individuals and the continuing sup2gr t for the general project.As may be observed in the record that follows,the research programs were conducted primarily at academic institutions. They were in part determined by available personnel and the nature of the special interests of some of these institutions. Whenever there were in divi d - uals who could be assimilated into the program readily o r were necessary for support of the major efforts of the Manhattan Project,the aid of the universities and the personnel were enlisted. Thus inthe formati ve stages of theN an hatta n Project,the interest and effort of many laboratories and personnel were slowly marshalled toward supporting these programs. At the outset,the organizational structure was amorphous. Eventually however, the activities,the personnel,and organization of the various research pursuits and the general overview status pursued by the Ned ical Division of theY an hatta n District became more structured and had a fairly rigorous outline. It is of considerable importance that the initial efforts were undertaken,as noted above, by the Office of Scientific Research and Development. But before long,it became clear that the efforts in the Yan hatta n Project would become enormous and highly

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complex and require integration. Even at the outset before the project was actually established,the army maintained close liaison.Eventually the entire effort come under the general direction of the armed forces,specifically the Manhattan District of the Corps of Engineers. The term Manhattan Project was actually never used until it was necessary to establish a record of the activities of all of the various elements which contributed to this particular war effort.Itwas then that the term Manhattan Project began to appear. And although I use this term as if it existed from the beginning, it was not identified as such until The first administrative units of what wasto become the Manhattan District Corps of Engineers were stationed in New York and undoubtedly the term Manhattan Project which encompassed the various activities of the whole effort were the result of util - ng the term of that particular appellation. The term Manhattan District was presumed to have arisen because the first administrative units had offices in New York City.In addition,the title >:anhattan District was then anomalous for engineer

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districts since they were generally identified as to geographic regions such as northwest, southwest, and so forth. It was my strong impression that the Engineers Corps officers, knowledgeable about the various designations for engineer districts, immediately recognized that "Manhattan District" was an unusfi appellation. And it is possible that this term signaled to them that it was in pursuit of some unusual activity. My own introduction to the activities of the University of Chicago occurred at the Metallurgical Laboratory which was, of course, the.primary site of the nuclear energy activities to be pursued in Chicago. At that time, I had been inducted into the Medical Corps and after recei.ving official orders to proceed to the University of Chicago, I reported to an Engineer Corps officer who received me in the Metallurgical Laboratory. I had been instructed prior to my reporting not to appear in military uniform and I found that Captain Grafton who was the first officer to whom I reported was also in civilian garb. I was then instructed after a preliminary introduction to prepare to report to Colonel James Marshall and to Lt. Colonel Robert Blair both of whom were stationed in New York City.

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It is highly probable that it was intended that I should remain with the Metallurgical Project at the University of Chicago.Asthe program d6v eloped and unfolded,however, and because of the need of liaison by the military forces, it was decided that my primary responsibility be exercised through the Corps of Engineers and I was in fact detached f + d m the Metallurgical Project at a fairly early date, in the Fall of 1942,and assigned to the Corps of Engineers directly.Prior to that time and before my official transfer proper,I participated in a number of activities at the Metallurgical Laboratory under the direction of Dr.Robert Stone and I was actually involved in making radiation measurements and surveying various activities and sites that might have potential radiation hazards.I worked closely with individuals who were eventual continue their activities at the Univers(dfChi - cago and later on at Clinton Laboratories. Throughout my tour of duty,until the end of the war,I retai ned my status as liaison officer with the Plutonium staff at the Univers ti y of California School of Medicine.I was working actively at the Crocker Radi ation Lab utilizing some of the artificially

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produced radioelements f o r biological tracer studies and their possible application for radiation therapy. The cyclotron was then also being used for the production of radioisotopes and the production of neutrons for radiation therapy and Dr. Stone was active in directing this particular application f o r cancer therapy. The formation of the Division of Biology and Medicine of the Manhattan District Corps of Engineers is closely intertwined with the development of the Biomedical Program at the University of Rochester. As the activities of the Manhattan Project began to increase and became more complex, it was increasingly evident ta the Corps of Engineers that a biomedical organization was necessary which would be responsive to the commanding officer of the Manhattan District. This unit would be able to survey programs in radiation protection, which could under various prospects involve many thousqnds of individuals. In addition to this, the Manhattan Engineer District w a s soon to embark on the development of various industrial sites utilg i n g large amounts of uranium and uranium products and therefore involved in large amounts of radioactivity. It was clear that this program would reguire continuous attention and surveillance. The Corps of Engineers then began to cast about for

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individuals who had had extensive experience in research particularly radiation research and an understanding of radiation hazards who might be able to develop and pursue a program in radiation protection. The conversations that I had at that time with a number of authoritative individuals including Dr. Compton and Dr. Stone as well as a number of Engineer Corps Officers suggested that Dr. Stone would be an appropropriate individual to accept the full responsibility . It was becorhning abund.antly clear that the military forces would assume the overall responsibilities and is now well known that early in 1943 General qobert Groves was to assume the overall direction of the Manhattan Project which was to be administered under the Manhattan District Corps of Engineers. It was the fjlrm conviction of General Groves that a senior medical administrative individual should have military rank in order to be able to exercise the appropriate administrative contacts and control which would necessarily be pursued as the program developed and came to fruition. Although the exact 2etails are not known to me, I believe that Dr. Stone was offered this opportunity.

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Apparently,Dr.Stone decided that he wished t o confine his efforts to the University of Chicago which gvolved into the Plutonium Project and it was necessary for General Groves to turn in another direction. I n Earch of 1943,Dr. Groves with the advike of i n - divi dual s in the OSRD and the National Institutes of ment that General Grove made to Stafford Warren was that he would assume eventually the responsibility for the overall general biomedical research and health programs of the entire Manhattan Project. When I first met Dr.Stafford Warren, he was designated as a consultant to the Manhattan District Corps of Engine ers in April of1943.He immediately began t o formulate plans for an organization w ~ c hc o ul dd is - charge the responsibility to be encompassed by the ment s to pursue a biological radiation research proj ect at the UniverEt_ljr of Rochester where he was then Chairman of the Department of Radiology in the School fo Medicine.In November o f 1943, Stafford Warren was corrmissioned as a Colonel in the Medical Corps of Engineers.During the six months o r so during which he served as a civilian consultant and in effect as civilian chief of the division of biology and medicine of the Corps …